Lupine Publishers | The Effects of Breastfeeding on the Process of Tooth and Jaw’s Development

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Pediatric Dentistry

Abstract

From the nutritional point of view, it has been proven that breast milk has many benefits for the baby, and it is advisable for all mothers to give their baby milk, and if possible do not replace that with the bottle. In other words, we can say that the sucking mechanism used during bottle-feeding is markedly different from that used during breast-feeding. The Federation of Orthodontists of France announced in a report that breastfeeding not only prevents allergies and gastrointestinal infections and overweight, it also promotes the regular growth of the baby’s face. Some of the researches prove this hypothesis.

Keywords: Bottle Feeding; Breast Feeding; Sucking Mechanism; Growth of Baby Face; Allergies; Gastro Intestinal Infections; Overweight

Introduction

After birth, the baby learns how to suck on her mother’s breast. She instinctively brings forward her lower jaw and tongue; then starts sucking with full power so that all the muscles of her tongue, cheeks, lips, and jaw are involved. In all infants, since jaws are not fully developed at birth, sucking breast milk helps the jaw to grow as well as the teeth in the future [1-3]. Breast-feeding has been indicated as one of the main factors which are responsible for the correct growth and formation of dentofacial structures during the infancy [1-3]. Breastfeeding is a useful action for developing and growing teeth and jaws of infants [1-4]. The mechanism used in for the time of bottle-feeding is markedly different from that used during breast-feeding [5-7]. In the course of sucking mother’s milk, more muscles are activated to get milk than to drink milk from the bottles. During this action, the baby inserts more of the nipple into his mouth, consequently, moves the jaw up and down, and sucks the breast with all force to release the milk. To achieve this, the facial and oral muscles of the baby are involved in milking activities. This improves the shape of the jaws, and healthy teeth are expected to be in the correct eruption direction without any deviation and abnormalities [1-4].

The Main Cause of Abnormal Tooth Formation During Infancy

One of the factors leading to abnormal teeth and also leading children to orthodontic or speech therapies [8] is the abnormal orofacial muscular imbalance pattern of the tongue [9-11] known as tongue thrust. This problem is more common among children who are fed through the bottle and is often not seen among those who are breastfed. In other words, the breast-fed baby has more forceful gums and mandibles to extract the milk from the mother’s breast while a baby who is fed with a bottle, does not have to use extra jaws force because by a simple sucking a rapid flow of milk will be obtained. Of course, it should not be taken for granted that all children who use the milk bottle suffer from jaw problems, but it should be remembered that breastfeeding give better evolution to the jaws and teeth than the nourishment from the bottle.

Overview of Some Researches

The early transition from breastfeeding to bottle-feeding may contribute to inadequate mandibular development which can be a dominant and deleterious factor in the development of occolusofacial problems. In this part, we look at some research which may point out this strong hypothesis. Some studies have cited that breastfeeding is a protective factor against malocclusion: Labbok and Hendershot have suggested that increased bottlefeeding duration may contribute to the prevalence of malocclusions [12].

Viggiano et al. and Karjalainen et al. have indicated that breastfeeding can be a positive factor to prevent the development of posterior cross bite in the primary dentition [6,13]. Warren et al. reported that breastfeeding promotes normal palate development and weakens the formation of a deep and high-arched palate [14]. Several studies agree that bottle-feeding may be responsible for the development of sucking habits which may lead to some forms of malocclusion [6,14,15].

Conclusion

Breastfeeding acts on the process of sucking which are influencing the development of facial bones and muscles. Infants who are breastfed have greater facial muscle activities compare to those who are bottle-fed. In other words, breast feeders present an excellent orofacial muscle work out which helps to develop good their bony jaw structures. Moreover, breastfeeding prevents against orthodontic problems and malocclusions (for instance: overbite, posterior crossbite, tongue thrust, oral habits and etc.) that are cited in some researches.

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Lupine Publishers | Treatment of Infected Primary Teeth using Modified Antibiotic Paste

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Pediatric Dentistry

Abstract

Objectives: Treatment of pulpectomized primary molars with chronic infection using a mixture of three antibiotics: Metronidazole, Ciprofloxacin, and Doxycycline mixed with Macrogol or Propylene Glycol (modified 3MIX-MP) as an intracanal medicament before the complete cleaning and shaping and obturation.

Study design: A 7 years old child with infected primary molar came to our clinic for treatment. A detailed medical history and drug allergy were taken. Ciprofloxacin (500mg), Metronidazole (500mg) and Doxycycline (100mg) tablets divided in the proportion of 1:3:3 (one part of Ciprofloxacin, three parts of Metronidazole, and three parts of Doxycycline) and mixed with propylene glycol to form an ointment. Biomechanical preparation was done. The modified 3MIX-MP paste placed in the pulp chamber then temporary filling. The patient was recalled after 2 weeks. The tooth was obturated and restored then a stainless-steel crown placed. Then reevaluated at 3rd, 6th, and 12th months.

Results: Excellent clinical and radiographic success when compared to conventional pulpectomy and non-instrumentational lesion sterilization tissue repair therapy.

Conclusion: Treatment of Primary molar with modified 3MIX-MP, followed by instrumentation and obturation provided excellent clinical and radiographic success when compared to non-instrumentational lesion sterilization tissue repair therapy.

Keywords: Pulp infection; Pulpectomy; Modified antibiotic paste; Primary molars; Chronic, infected pulp; Modified 3 MIX-MP; Pulpectomy; Triple antibiotic paste; Primary teeth

Introduction

The first topical antibiotic introduced to endodontics was Grossman’s polyantibiotic paste in 1951, later many topical antibiotics have been introduced with varying combinations, few of those include Septomixine forte; PBSC (Combination of Penicillin, Bacitracin, Streptomycin and Caprylate sodium), and Clindamycin. However, none of these combinations has proven to be 100% successful in eliminating all the bacterial strains from the root canal system [1-5].

Materials and Methods

A child aged 7 years old with chronic infection related to the lower left primary molar came to our clinic for treatment of the infected molar (Figure 1). Treatment was explained to the parents and written informed consent was taken from parents before start of the study. A detailed medical history and previous illness with a history of drug allergy were taken from the parents, then the mentioned primary molar was diagnosed clinically, the molar was badly decayed with signs of chronic infection such as: gingival swelling and tenderness to percussion. A radiographic examination was done and a per radicular radiolucency was found, with no excessive root resorption. Commercially available chemotherapeutic agents such as Ciprofloxacin (500mg) (Omacip, NPI Pharma, Oman), Metronidazole (500mg) (Anazol, JPI, Saudi Arabia), and Doxycycline (100mg) (Tabocine, TPMC, Tabuk) tablets were obtained [6,7], then these tablets were crushed into fine powder using sterile porcelain mortar and pestle. These powdered drugs were transferred into three separate sterile glass containers, capped tightly and stored in the refrigerator until its use. Just before use, each powdered drug was divided in the proportion of 1:3:3 (one part of Ciprofloxacin, three parts of Metronidazole, and three parts of Doxycycline) and were mixed with propylene glycol and polyethylene glycol to form an ointment. Reddy GA et al. Trairatvorakul and Detsomboonrat, Jaya et al., Cruz et al. also followed the similar protocol of preparation of 3MIX antibiotic paste [8-11].

Figure 1: Preoperative illustration.

Figure 2: Postoperative illustration.

Preoperative clinical and radiographical signs and symptoms were recorded. The tooth was anesthetized using 2% Xylocaine with 1:80,000 adrenalin and isolated with rubber dam. Access opening was performed using round bur, Biomechanical preparation was done using k files from size 10–25. The root canals were chemically cleaned with 1% sodium hypochlorite solution and dried with paper points. The 3MIX-MP paste placed in the pulp chamber and pressed with dampened cotton pellet and temporized with Cavit. The patient was recalled after 2 weeks for evaluation. The tooth was obturated with reinforced zinc oxide eugenol (IRM, Dentsply) using lentulo spirals. Then restored with glass ionomer restorative material (Riva self-cure, SDI) and reinforced by placing stainless steel crowns (Figure 2). Further, the treated tooth was reevaluated both clinically and radiographically at 3rd, 6th, and 12th months intervals postoperatively (Figure 3). At the time of revisits, the tooth was examined clinically for any signs of failure that includes a report of spontaneous pain, presence of swelling, sinus tract and mobility. Radiographic evaluation was done to check the radiolucency and signs of resorption. The tooth was asymptomatic without pain, swelling, sinus tract and mobility also there was no increase in furcation radiolucency or development of root resorption which is abnormal for the age of the child.

Figure 3: 12 months Follow up.

Results

Excellent clinical and radiographic success when compared to conventional pulpectomy and non-instrumentational lesion sterilization tissue repair therapy.

Discussion

This study was approved by “Research Ethics Committee, Taibah University, College of Dentistry, TU CD-REC”. The concept of Non-Instrumentation Endodontic Therapy introduced by Niigata university school of dentistry; Japan has gained reputation as it proved to attain 100% sterility in the root canal system [12- 15]. They recommended a technique similar to pulpotomy where debriding only the pulp chamber of chronically infected primary teeth and placing medicament (ciprofloxacin, metronidazole, and minocycline) near the root orifice without preparing the radicular portion. Cruz et al. suggested vehicles such as macrogol and propylene glycol (3MIX–MP) and demonstrated that these vehicles will carry the medicament deep into the dentinal tubules, thus aid in effective eradication of bacteria [11]. Metronidazole (Nitroimidazole compound) due to its wide spectrum of antibacterial action against anaerobes (Ingham et al. 1975) gained importance as the 1st choice drug for triple antibiotic paste preparation [16,17]. Metronidazole binds to the DNA and disrupts its helical structure and thus leads to rapid cell death. However, metronidazole even at higher concentrations could not eradicate all the bacteria thus indicating the necessity of some additional drugs to sterilize these lesions [15]. The two other antibacterial drugs, i.e. ciprofloxacin, and minocycline, in addition to metronidazole (3MIX) were added in an effort to eliminate all bacteria [8,10,15,18]. The 2nd choice of drug ciprofloxacin is a synthetic fluoroquinolone with rapid bactericidal action. It inhibits the enzyme DNA gyrase of bacteria. It exhibits very potent activity against Gram-negative bacteria but very limited activity against Gram-positive bacteria. Most of the anaerobic bacteria are resistant to ciprofloxacin. Hence, it is often combined with metronidazole in treating mixed infections. The 3rd choice of drug was minocycline. It is a semisynthetic derivative of tetracycline, primarily bacteriostatic, inhibiting protein synthesis by binding to 30S ribosomes in susceptible organisms and exhibits broad spectrum of activity against Gram-positive and Gramnegative microorganisms [3].

In our present study we replaced Minocycline with Doxycycline due to the difficulty in obtaining Minocycline, and before using the Doxycycline as a replacement we have done further searches for previous studies to ensure that both medications have the same effect and this replacement will not affect the efficacy of the mentioned mix. The already done studies concerning the difference between both Doxycycline and Minocycline revealed that still no statistically significant differences had been demonstrated in clinical trials when comparing Minocycline with Doxycycline, and investigators had concluded that both are equally effective. And they differ in their adverse event profile [19]. Considerably fewer adverse effects have been reported for Doxycycline than Minocycline; the adverse effects for Minocycline are 5 times more common than for Doxycycline [19]. We have followed the same protocol of Reddy GA et al. of extirpation of both necrotic coronal as well as all accessible radicular pulp tissue and then complete obturation, which is reported successful clinically over 16th month follow-up [9]. Although the previous studies have demonstrated that the LSTR (Lesion Sterilization Tissue Repair) technique as one of the successful techniques for management of chronically infected primary teeth, the controversies aroused about the duration of therapeutic activity of the medicament and leaving the infected material in the radicular region. So that the present study planned where in treated tooth were revisited after 2 weeks for medicament removal and obturation.

Conclusion

All the primary teeth with chronic infection which were treated using modified 3MIX-MP, followed by the instrumentation and obturation provided excellent clinical and radiographic success when compared to conventional pulpectomy and noninstrumentational lesion sterilization tissue repair therapy.

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Lupine Publishers | Varied clinical and Oral Presentation of Beckwith – Wiedemann Syndrome - Report of a Case from Saudi Arabia

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Pediatric Dentistry

Abstract

Beckwith – Wiedemann syndrome is congenital, genetic and epigenetic pathologies with low prevalence and diverse clinical presentations. It is characterized by triad of omphalocele, macroglossia and gigantism. This syndrome has been widely studied with a current emphasis on improvement of prenatal diagnostic techniques and a multidisciplinary approach towards treatment. We report a case of BWS from Saudi Arabia, with unique presentations and misleading history which delayed diagnosis, due to cultural and religion constraints.

Keywords:Congenital; Epigenetic; Genetic; Prenatal

Introduction

Genetic and epigenetic changes or a human genomic imprinting disorder is characterized by phenotypic variability which might shows its occurrence either as sporadic or inherited. The pathology presents wide range of effect on psychological and social wellbeing of patients and families. One such congenital, multigenic, multisystem human genomic imprinting disorder with complex molecular etiology and variable complex phenotype is Beckwith – Wiedemann Syndrome (BWS). Beckwith-Wiedemann Syndrome is most common overgrowth syndrome described by Beckwith in 1963 and Wiedemann in 1964 with similar findings. It is rare congenital deformity with low prevalence but at same time have high prevalence within genetic abnormalities of overgrowth [1]. The presentation of triad features of omphalocele (exomphalos), macroglossia and gigantism was described earlier as EMG syndrome which now is referred as Beckwith – Widemann Syndrome. The incidence of BWS reported is approximately 1:13700 births and the major cause is thought till date is genetic and epigenetic defects within the chromosome 11p15.5 regions [2].

BWS presents wide array of clinical manifestations such as congenital abdominal wall defects as hernia (exomphalos), gigantism, macroglossia, nevus flammeus, ear pits/hearing loss, midface hypoplasia, cardiac anomalies, hemihypertrophy, genitourinary anomalies and musculoskeletal abnormalities. To standardize the diagnostic criteria various attempts have been made to classify the major and minor criteria. Elliot et al described the diagnosis of BWS with the presence of either three major features (abdominal wall defect, macroglossia, gigantism) or two major and three minor features (ear pits, nevus flammeus, hemi hyperplasia, nephromegaly, neonatal hypoglycemia) [3]. In spite of diverse clinical presentations of BWS, most of the cases do not show characteristic features at birth but develop later in life. Also, children with BWS have significantly increased risk of cancer during early childhood which need strict follow up and monitoring. Here, we present a case of BWS with unique dental and medical presentation and its differential diagnosis with literature review.

Case Report

A 5-year-old female patient, accompanied by her mother, presented to the dental unit with complaint of decay tooth in upper front region of mouth. Extra oral examination revealed dysmorphic features, coarse facies and developmental problems (Figure 1). Intra oral examination of hard tissue showed high arched palate, decayed teeth in relation to 51, 52, 55, 61, 62, 74, 75, 84,85. Oral soft tissue examination revealed macroglossia, enlargement of fungiform papillae and mild loss of filiform papillae (Figure 2). Speech and feeding difficulty were noticed due to macroglossia. History revealed she is the youngest 7th child born out of consanguineous marriage in 30th week by cesarian section. She has a chronic history of constipation for 9 months of age. She passes hard stool once in every 8 to 10 days, by spending long time in washroom. It is associated with decrease in appetite and abdominal pain. She was given Movicol (half the adult dose) twice a day for constipation without any medical prescription. She was also tried with lactulose, glycerin suppository and mineral oil. Under medical supervision fleet enema and contrast enema were performed to relieve constipation and to rule out Hirschsprung disease.

Figure 1: Photograph showing dysmorphic features and hypertelorism.

Figure 2: Macroglossia with enlarged fungiform papillae and loss of filiform papillae.

Other medical findings noticed omphalocele, ear pits, large child at 90th centiles, large rounded eyes with hypertelorism, abdominal soft lax, enlargement of kidney, distention of left renal pelvis with significantly distended urinary bladder, abnormal anatomy of the colon located in left abdomen and partial colonic non – rotation with no evidence of obstruction (Figure 3). Based on the clinical and past medical history a diagnosis of Beckwith – Wiedemann Syndrome (BWS) was made. Series of laboratory investigation were reviewed which presented negative urine examination, alpha – fetoprotein, karyotype, microarray and methylation analysis for BMS. Patient was advised for gene analysis and targeting testing for parents. The gene analysis of CDKN1C gene showed heterozygous alteration consistent with BWS but targeting gene tests were refused by parents. Panoramic radiograph was advised considering the patient chief complaint, which revealed multiple developing permanent tooth buds, protrusion of anterior teeth, open bite and increase in mandibular dimension (Figure 4). Under preventive measures the patient was treated for the decayed teeth and is under follow up from past 6 months.

Figure 3: Photograph showing abdominal wall defect with surgical scar.

Figure 4: Panaromic radiograph showing multiple developing permanent tooth buds, open bite and increased mandibular dimension.

Discussion

Diagnostic criteria for BWS is still a matter of research due to its varied clinical presentations and overlapping features with other various conditions. The presence of major and minor findings is generally helpful in establishing the clinical diagnosis (Table 1). The oral findings as mentioned in the literature and observed in our case has been tabulated in Table 2 [4,5]. The incidence of BWS is difficult to assess in Saudi Arabia, as most of the cases goes undiagnosed and unnoticed. Also attributed to its diverse clinical presentation and difficulty in diagnosing. In the present case, features of macroglossia, macrosomia, omphalocele, abdominal wall defect (treated immediately after birth and surgical scar observed clinically), Renal involvement, ear crease, high arched palate, open bite and increased mandibular dimension, leads to the diagnosis of BWS. Various molecular mechanisms and alterations have been involved in BWS such as abnormal methylation of H19DMR, loss of imprinting of IGF2, chromosomal rearrangements, loss of imprinting of LIT1, uniparental disomy of 11p15 and CDKN1C mutations [2]. The full gene analysis of CDKN1C gene profile were suggestive of BWS in our case and the alteration is thought to be located in the allele inherited from the mother. Parental testing was advised which was refused by the parents. There are various endocrine and overgrowth syndromes that was considered in the differential diagnosis. These included Simpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome (mutation in X-linked gene, GPC3), Perlman syndrome (Increased risk of neonatal mortality), Costello syndrome (missense mutation in HRAS), Sotos syndrome (Mutation in NSD1) and Mucopolysaccharidosis type IV (lysosomal storage disorder) [6]. Oral findings like macroglossia of BWS needs differentiation from other lesions like lymphangioma, idiopathic muscular hypertrophy, hemangioma, rabdomyomas, amyloidosis, cretinism and acromegaly.

Table 1: Presenting major and minor features of BWS.

Table 2: Oral findings of BWS.

The overall risk of BWS for tumor development/malignancies is estimated to range from 4 – 21%. The tumors reported with BWS are mainly embryonal tumors such as Wilms tumor, hepatoblastoma, rabdomyosarcoma, adrenocortical carcinoma and neuroblastoma [7]. The prenatal diagnosis with current technology is increasing representing an important tool to determine some features of BWS before birth. In our case, parents were highly orthodox and refuse to share the detailed prenatal and ultrasonic reports. Few misguided information’s were given by mother which was later clarified with the reports from the subsequent medical hospitals. Patient’s parents were advised for periodic follow up with genetic counselling and the possibility of surgical interventions in the medical units, but they refused to follow and changed the hospitals every time. Hence, an effort was put forward to retrieve the information’s related to the patient while giving her the primary treatment for which she reported to our dental unit. This suggest the need of awareness required in the country like Saudi Arabia, where most of the cases goes unreported/unnoticed or parent’ consent not given or the cultural and religion barriers that prevent reporting such cases. Though the patient was treated with dental fillings, the follow up of the patients is been restricted by the family members.

Conclusion

Beckwith – Wiedemann Syndrome patients usually grow and do well despite being at increased risk of childhood cancer. Hence, strict follow up, awareness of parents and cancer screening is mandatory. Families, physicians and dentists should determine screening schedule including abdominal ultrasound in every three months, blood test to measure alpha-fetoprotein in every six weeks, dental check-up in every six months and other symptomatic treatment schedule as and when required.

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Lupine Publishers | Paediatric Dentistry and Prevention from Teenage Pregnancy

 Lupine Publishers | Journal of Pediatric Dentistry

Abstract

Medical specialties have paid little attention to the teenage stage, including Dentistry. If to this we add the teen pregnancy trends due to economic, social or cultural circumstances, the results are young women with a high prevalence of caries, periodontal disease and early tooth loss.

Objective: To detect teenagers at risk through different educational institutions such as churches, health centers, sports clubs, etc.

Situation Analysis: The field study revealed a worrying number of adolescents who drop out of school or job due to pregnancy at a young age.

Intervention Strategies: Three different levels of prevention were stablished

a) Primary prevention: measures intended to prevent teenage pregnancy.

b) Secondary prevention: measures adopted when there was evidence of an ongoing pregnancy.

c) Tertiary prevention: measures taken to promote school reinsertion and reintegration into the labor market.

Results: Teachers, doctors, dentists, obstetricians, physical therapists, neonatologists and pediatricians worked in a multi and interdisciplinary way in order to educate and promote healthy living, and to avoid risk situations in this age group.

Keywords: Teenage pregnancy; Caries; Oral health; Education; Prevention

Abbreviations: UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund in Argentina; UNICEF: United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund

Introduction

The topic to be developed is about an issue which has arisen in important sectors of young people from Chaco. Around sixteen million of young women between the ages of fifteen and nineteen give birth each year - roughly eleven percent of all births worldwide. Complications related to childbirth and pregnancy is the main cause of death among adolescent girls, especially in developing countries. In Latin America, ten percent of girls aged fifteen to nineteen are mothers. In Argentina, the number of teenage pregnancies has increased since 2001, representing a sixteen percent of pregnancies. The percentage recorded in some areas such as the Argentinian northeast and west was twenty five percent [1]. Teenage motherhood and fatherhood are more frequent among young, poor people who have a lower educational level. Eighty percent of teenagers who don’t have children attend school regularly, while twenty five percent of teenagers who have children don’t. The number of teenage mothers with incomplete primary education trebles the number of those with incomplete secondary education [2]. The national legislative framework contains rules as the Law 25.673 which ensures that young people have the right to access to sexual and reproductive health. The Law 26.150 states that individuals have the right to receive sexual integral education from elementary to superior level studies. The Laws 25.58 and 25.273 provide that the continued attendance at school of pregnant students is guaranteed. Carlos Dabalioni, Director of Children and Adolescents Department of La Plata City Hall, Buenos Aires, has stated that, although in some cases pregnancy is the result of misinformation, it goes beyond mere teaching teenagers how to take care of themselves; because the problem is, in many cases, the lack of social and family support. To many women, having a child is their only asset, the chance to have the family they didn’t have when they were younger, the only way to keep their partners or give the baby all they lacked. When that kind of support is missing, there is no point trying to teach young women how to take care of themselves. UNICEF’s Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean has claimed that “UNICEF is committed to focusing its efforts on the phases of adolescence as the opportunity to develop individual skills and abilities in favorable and safe surroundings, so as to enable the adolescent to contribute to and participate in the family, school, community and society” [3].

Adolescence Stages

Adolescence can be divided into three different stages, which entails different ways to deal with pregnancy:

Early adolescence (10 -13 years old):

a) Strong connection with the mother.

b) Denial of pregnancy.

c) Depression and social isolation caused by unplanned maternity.

d) The father is absent from the mother’s plans and decisions.

Middle adolescence (14-16 years old):

a) The mother sees the child as her possession and as an instrument to show independence from her parents.

b) Ambivalent attitude: blame and pride.

c) The father is given a more important role. He’s considered as a hope for the future.

Late adolescence (17-19 years old):

a) Adaptation to the reality impact.

b) Feelings of motherhood.

c) Search for affection, commitment, dedication from the baby’s father.

d) Mother’s desire to have a settled life with her partner.

It is important to highlight that a teenage pregnant won’t reach mental and emotional maturity earlier than expected. She will behave in accordance with the stage she is going through [4]. Consequences of an Unplanned Pregnancy

a) High risk of maternal mortality

b) Higher possibility of premature births

c) Risk of having a child with low birth weight

d) Difficulties in completing studies and having a life project.

At a global level, increased morbidity during teenage pregnancy is caused by:

a) Abortion

b) Anaemia

c) Urinary infection

d) Asymptomatic bacteriuria

e) Gestational hypertension

f) Preeclampsia – Eclampsia

g) Little weight gain

h) Maternal malnutrition

i) Haemorrhage associated with placental conditions

j) Preterm birth

k) Preterm rupture of the membranes

l) Cephalopelvic disproportion

m) Caesarean section

Levels of Prevention<./

Primary Prevention

The first level concerns the application of measures to prevent unplanned teenage pregnancy.

a) Information distribution about gradual and sequential reproductive physiology not only in school but also in all areas.

b) Appropriate use of mass media.

c) Fostering strong parents/school-children communication and collective reflection on adolescence issues.

d) Training of people who often deal with high-risk young people who quit school or job in order to help them reintegrate fully into society.

Secondary Prevention

The second level concerns the actions that should be taken if there is an existing pregnancy.

a) Activities to improve maternal health through the promotion of pre-natal and post- partum health care programmes for teenage mothers.

b) Assistance should be given to the teenage father, helping him to assume his social role.

c) Psychological support and information should be provided to young mothers who decide to place their children for adoption.

Tertiary Prevention

The third level concerns the monitoring of the mother/fatherchild bond and the support and fostering the parents’ reinsertion in the labor market. At an educational level, the emphasis is placed on the relevance of speaking about sexual and reproductive health with teenagers and their friends, parents, teachers and trustworthy adults, teaching teenagers how to resist social pressures and delay onset of sexual activity to prevent sexually transmitted diseases and unplanned pregnancies, teaching teenagers to support those who decide not to have sexual relations (they have to be prepared to say no and act firmly when faced with risk situations or threats), raising awareness about the importance of condom use during intercourse to ensure their protection, keeping reminding young people that they should avoid drinking alcohol or taking drugs when they are with their partners, so that they can make right and responsible decisions regarding sexuality and sexual behaviors, and promoting safe, healthy and responsible sexuality. Teenage pregnancy can be prevented, not cured. If an unplanned pregnancy happens, parents play a vital supportive role. They should teach their children to behave responsibly and confront life difficulties.

Caries Prevention during Pregnancy

It is well known that teeth and gums are affected during pregnancy since hormonal changes have a great impact on women’s gums. These may bleed spontaneously, be itemized and red, causing halitosis. There is a higher risk of tooth decay during pregnancy because of nausea, vomiting, reduced saliva pH and secretion, anxiety, and higher consumption of sweets. Caries can be prevented by adopting a good oral hygiene (for at least 2 minutes), brushing the teeth three times or more per day, consuming calcium-rich foods (such as milk, yogurt, cheese), proteins (meat, eggs), vitamins and minerals (fruits, vegetables, cereals, beans), avoiding sugary foods and drinks, and visiting the dentist once each trimester during pregnancy. Babies are born free from bacteria that cause tooth decay. Bacteria are spread through saliva when the mother kisses the baby in the mouth, or cleans the bottle or the pacifier, also when the baby’s first teeth appear. Babies shouldn’t sleep with the bottle in the mouth. The sugar contained in milk together with the bacteria produce an acid that can eat through the teeth, leading to dental enamel damage. To eliminate or reduce caries risk factors in the baby is necessary to use a mouthwash-soaked gauze to clean inside the baby’s mouth after breastfeeding or drinking from a baby bottle, brushing their teeth from the first moment they appear and visiting the dentist with the baby so they can monitor your child’s oral health from birth and every six months.

Materials and Methods

A Mother-Child Programmed was implemented in health centers, with the multidisciplinary professionals’ participation. Dental care and prevention were taught through games, as well as pre- birth gym. Efforts were made to empower individuals and government agencies, civil associations, academic institutions and the private sector.

Results and Discussion

The present research is based on data field extracted from the UNFPA, an international cooperation organism for development formed in 1969. It has been running in Argentina since 2003, promoting women, men and children’s rights to enjoy a healthy life and equality of opportunities [5]. In 2018, the UNFPA struggled to achieve 3 transforming, ambitious goals which promise to change every man, woman and child’s life: to put an end to the family planning unsatisfied need, to the gender violence [6] and to the preventable maternal death [7].

Conclusion

Early pregnancy and motherhood are strictly linked to human right issues. A pregnant child is pushed to drop out school. In all regions of the world, poor children with lack of education and living in rural areas are at risk of getting pregnant. Pregnancy can have devastating effects on the young mother’s health. Many teenagers are not physically prepared to get pregnant or deliver; therefore, they are more vulnerable to complications. Besides, teenage pregnancy has tremendous costs in girls’ education and incomes potential. In Argentina, efforts are being made to prevent teenage pregnancy, trying to change factors such as inequality of gender, poverty, sexual violence and coercion. Such an approach must include provision of suitable, integral sexual education for every young man and woman, as well as investment in girls’ education and measures to guarantee the access to information about sexual and reproductive health and services to facilitate young people’s life choices.

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